Tempestuous Europe — quarrelsome, divisive, seething. New alliances,
old loyalties, quick hatreds, long-standing feuds. Enormous
upheavals, centuries-old reactionary repressions. This was the muddled
Continental picture as growing crises boiled over in the summer of
1588. At this time, Ring Phillip II of Spain sent his mighty fleet of warships
to crush the increasing impudence of England’s upstart Queen
Elizabeth I and her motley sea dogs. At least, that was the expectation.

Sweeping alterations in thought and attitudes marked the final
years of the Fifteenth Century which saw great seaward expansions
with Columbus’ Atlantic voyages and the circumnavigation of Africa to
India. Shortly thereafter, Spanish adventurers Hernando Cortes and
Francisco Pizarro conquered the American Indian empires of the Aztecs
in Mexico and the Incas in South America, opening the Western
Hemisphere to colonization and exploitation.

As wealth from the Americas began to fill the coffers of Spain and
Portugal, Pope Alexander VI arbitrarily divided the world between
these two Catholic powers, giving the West to Spain, with the exception
of Brazil, which was later claimed by Portugal, and the Orient to Portugal,
except the Phillipine Islands, which were to be Spanish.

And so treasure ships, heavily laden with the riches of the world,
brought all manner of precious goods home to Spain and Portugal.
Although the inpouring of wealth was staggering, far the largest portion
of it was necessarily spent in maintaining the far-flung colonial empires.

In 1580, the King of Portugal died and King Phillip, a relative, was
his natural heir. So Spain annexed Portugal with her vast holdings to
her own empire. Philip was then the most powerful ruler the world had
ever known, with staggering responsibilities and weighty issues to decide.

Meanwhile, Europe was hopelessly split by the spread of Martin
Luther’s Protestant Reformation movement that threatened Catholic
domination. German merchants of the formidade Hanseatic League
controlled Baltic shipping, while the Netherlands, still not a national
entity, was under tight Spanish control in the person of the Duke of
Parma.

But upsurging England and France took exception to the Pope’s
partitioning of the world into two Catholic realms. Although the French
lacked the resources to involve themselves directly in the New World
conquests, they understandably wanted a share in the treasures. French
privateers began to prey on the gold-carrying fleets in a satisfying combination
of gaining riches as they fought to undermine Catholic persecution
of French Protestants, or Huguenots.

England could not afford such cavalier action, as that country had
been allied with Spain for nearly eighty years. Her Catholic Queen
Mary, daughter of Henry VIII, had married King Philip of Spain in 1554.
But when May died without issue, her half-sister, Elizabeth, a Protestant,
became Queen of England and established her own persuasion as
the national religion.

England did not have the strength to oppose Spain openly, but
after 1558, her power, particularly at sea, began to build. Elizabeth invested
heavily in the voyages of her merchant fleet and thus added
money to her treasury.

The English traders, including some of the queen’s own ships,
began to deal directly but “illegally” with West Africa, the West Indies,
Russia, and even North America as they searched for a northwest passage
to the Pacific. There were incidents and skirmishes as the Spanish
moved to stop English depredations. Spain’s monopolistic control of
New World wealth and England’s undercover determination to cut herself
in for a share of the booty forced a showdown between the two
countries.

Spain sought to place Elizabeth’s Catholic cousin, Mary Queen of
Scots, on the throne of England in complicated political machinations.
A number of heavy-handed plots failed and Mary was to remain a virtual
prisoner in England for eighteen years.

Elizabeth fought off all intrigues with diplomacy, lying, manipulations,
wheedling, or brute force, as the occasion demanded. Her unpredictable
strategies effectively cemented her own position, raised England’s
fortune and power, further confused the political situations of
France and the Netherlands, and irritated and harrassed Spain with
constant sniping and dogging her flanks.

Elizabeth, conscious of Mary Queen of Scots’ continual plotting
against her, finally yielded to the advice of her counselors. Mary was
beheaded on February 18, 1587, thus removing the stay of Philip to
move against England. A month later, he ordered the Marquis de la
Santa Cruz to activate his longstanding Enterprise, his master plan for
the conquest of England by land and sea. England was aware of Spain’s
intentions and of the forthcoming full-scale war, and began to make
plans of her own.

Backbone of Spanish sea might was the galleon, with two or three
decks, usually three masted, and with heavy guns for armament.
Wooden “castles” fore and aft were actually floating forts that afforded
sniper strongholds for close fighting. Spanish admirals preferred short
range bombardment with their large bore cannons, and then moving in
for grappling, boarding, and hand-to-hand combat.

Galleys, small and light with iron beaks at their prows, were used
successfully by the Spanish in Mediterranean warfare, using ramming
as their offensive technique. Lightly armed and rowed by banks of
slaves or prisoners, galleys were ill-equipped to withstand the savage
onslaughts of the open ocean.

Therefore, a new class of ship combining the best features of galleons
and galleys and called the galleass, was being developed. The
galleass was midway between the two other vessels in size and was also
made of wood, used both oars and sails, and was heavily armed.

The English, used to the treachery of the North Atlantic, concentrated
their efforts on highly maneuverable sailing ships. Under the
leadership of John Hawkins, the navy was ridding itself of decrepit tonnage
and corrupt officials while designing more effective men-o-war
and improving the lot of seamen.

English dreadnaughts were stripped of their topheavy castles and
new ships were more streamlined. They could carry more sail and turn
into the wind with greater speed. Heavily armed greatships were also a
mainstay of the English fleet.

But the most effective idea, brainchild of Hawkins and his mentor,
Sir William Wynter, Master of Naval Ordinance, was their reliance on
lighter demicannon which fired a thirty-pound ball (as opposed to the
fifty pounders hurled for shorter distances by the guns of Spain) and on
culverins and demiculverins. This permitted long range salvos that
could inflict great damage on enemy ships without closing.

With her fleet ready, Elizabeth still procrastinated. In April, 1587,
she finally permitted the swashbuckling Sir Francis Drake to put to sea
with a complement of twenty-three vessels in a private venture of spying,
raiding, and blockading.

Upon reaching Portuguese waters, Drake boldly began a frontal
attack on the massed vessels in the harbor of Cadiz. There, some sixty
ships, in varying stages of repair, were being readied to join the Enter
prise, the Armada, and were hopelessly crowded together. In the ensuing
battle in which the Spanish were sitting ducks, between twenty-four
and thirty-seven of their ships were sunk and Drake reprovisioned his
own fleet at the enemy’s expense. He also learned that the main
Spanish fleet was rendezvousing in Lisbon, and that Commander Don
Juan Martinez de Recalde, with half a dozen ships, was waiting at sea to
escort the treasure ships that were returning from the West Indies.

Drake decided to sail to Cape St. Vincent, a strategic point, to intercept
Recalde. Not finding him there, Drake nevertheless went on to
capture the stronghold, destroying the castle, the monastery and its fort.
He then ran amuck, sinking fifty tuna fishing boats and fifty barrelcarrying
cargo ships, both groups vital in supplying the Armada. Unable
to attack Lisbon directly, he returned to Cape St. Vincent to rest his
crews and clean his ships.

Heaping insult upon vast damages, Drake then captured the carrack,
the SAN FELIPE, a personal ship of King Philip, a loaded treasure
ship of jewels and gold, velvets and silks, china, porcelain, and spices.
Taking his prize to England, Drake was championed for seriously crippling
the Spanish war effort and for delaying the sailing of the Armada.
Elizabeth claimed her share of the loot while publicly disclaiming responsibility
for Drake’s deplorable actions.

King Philip was understandably enraged. The next spring, with his
commander, the Marquis of Santa Cruz dead from overwork and
exhaustion, he appointed a successor, Don Alonso Perez de Guzman el
Bueno, Duke of Medina Sidonia. This exalted commander felt he was
unqualified to lead so vast an undertaking as the Armada, but Philip
waved aside his protests and bade him set out with the flotilla post haste.

Medina Sidonia, with his council of advisors, worked feverishly to
modernize the moldering collection of outmoded vessels languishing in
the harbors, but few improvements were possible in so short a time.
Finally, all feasible preparations were completed and the Enterprise, the
Armada was ready to get underway.

Misfortune dogged the expedition from the start. They were unable
to sail in the middle of May because unfavorable weather persisted
for three weeks. Another similar period of time was then consumed
while the fleet crept only as far up the coast as La Coruna, Spain because
they were slowed by the crawling pace of the storeships.

At La Coruna, the entire fleet put in for fresh water and vital
supplies, but only half were able to anchor in the harbor. A terrible
storm in the night blew some seventy ships out to sea and it was many
days before they could reorganize and set forth again.

Under the command of Medina Sidonia, in the first line of battle,
were ten galleons from the Indian Guard, nine galleons of the Portuguese
Navy; the Italian warship, SAN FRANCISCO; four galleasses;
and four greatships.

The second line of battle consisted of forty armed merchantmen,
ranked into four squadrons; twenty-three storeships; thirty-four pinnaces;
and five other small vessels.

King Philip’s grand plan for the conquest of Britain was for the
Armada to proceed to the English Channel and there rendezvous with
the Dutch battalions of the Duke of Parma. After escorting these troops
in their barges across the channel for the invasion of England, the Armada
was to destroy any opposing ships at sea or in the harbors. Spain
supposed the English fleet to be inconsequential.

Meanwhile, Sir Francis Drake had been impatient for action for
many months. He had badgered Queen Elizabeth to let him sail for
Spain to take offensive action, but she hesitated. Finally, in May, all
available ships were provisioned and ready for duty. Lord Howard was
in command, with Drake as his first officer.

On Friday, July 29th, 1588, the Spanish Armada was sighted off
the Lizard, the tip of the Cornish coast, and on their way to Plymouth.
By evening, Lord Howard was able to put to sea with fifty-four ships
while others were still loading. These ships slipped around the Armada
to the south, there to wait for daylight.

The Armada had remained intact on the difficult voyage from
Spain except for the four galleys which were unable to weather vicious
Atlantic gales and had to seek French ports, and one merchant ship that
had disappeared. Medina Sidonia, in that night of waiting near the
Lizard, believed Drake’s ship to be in Plymouth harbor while Lord
Howard’s forces were still patrolling the Dutch coast. He moved his fleet
closer to Plymouth the next day.

Sunday morning, July 31, 1588, saw the first meeting of the English
and the Spanish, who wheeled in unison in a magnificent display
of seamanship and discipline, to meet the south-lying enemy, The armada,
in crescent formation with Medina Sidonia’s flagship, the SAN
MARTIN, in the lead, faced nearly two hundred ships of superior fire
power, including the huge TRIUMPH, the 1,100-ton warship commanded
by Martin Frobisher. Additionally, the English ships, though
many were smaller, had the advantage in maneuverability.

The battle was joined. The English challenged the crescent’s right
wing with Lord Admiral Howard in the ARK ROYAL, while Drake’s
REVENGE, Frobisher’s TRIUMPH, and John Hawkins’ VICTORY
sailed against the Spanish forces to the left. English long range culverins
opened fire, and when the Spanish came out to meet them, the nimble
attackers fled. The English also had the wind advantage, a major factor.

That afternoon, the powder magazine of the Spanish greatship,
SAN SALVADOR, exploded. In the confusion that followed, the English
attacked again and two Spanish ships collided. The sea roughened
as the wind increased and fighting broke off, leaving the still-virtuallyintact
Armada to move on eastward up the channel.

The English pursued, not wanting the Spanish to rest or refit. They
captured the ROSARIO and the SAN SALVADOR, two rich prizes.
Monday and Tuesday saw continuous skirmishing and heavy firing, and
by Wednesday, both fleets were growing short of ammunition. Thursday,
all vessels were becalmed, but as the wind freshened, the Spanish
took quite a pounding from English squadrons.

The Armada, low on supplies, kept moving through Friday and
most of Saturday, and then dropped anchor that night in Calais, France,
to await word from the Duke of Parma in Holland. The English, at rest
less than two miles away, received reinforcements of ships and ammunition,
raising their strength to 140 vessels.

Medina Sidonia learned, to his chagrin, that the Duke of Parma
was far inland with his men and would not be ready to move for at least
two weeks. In addition, no food or supplies would be forthcoming from
that quarter. Then the English sent eight fireships drifting toward the
massed Armada, and the Spanish scattered hopelessly in panic.

Monday, August 8th, saw some of the bitterest fighting to date,
with the English pounding at the disorganized, retreating Armada.
Eventually, both sides were out of ammunition and the scene faded in
the confusion of yet another storm.

So far, in nine days of sea battles, the Armada, which had originally
numbered 130 ships, had lost nearly half its strength and over 600 men
killed with another 800 wounded. They were in total rout with the English
fleet, still at full strength, dogging them unmercifully. The Spanish
were completely demoralized and they prayed for deliverance.

Then that night, the capricious winds shifted again and blew the
Armada northeast far out into the North Sea. The helpless English,
could only follow and watch. The Spanish were grateful for this turn of
events and gave thanks for their miraculous escape.

But tribulations were only beginning. Winds continued from the
same quarter so the Spanish had no recourse but to go on northward
past Scotland. The English finally turned homeward.

Armada survivors rode the storm-riven seas, cold and hungry, in
holed, demasted hulks barely able to keep afloat. Many of these ghastly
wrecks were without anchor or rudder, and after rounding northern
Scotland between the Orkneys and the Shetland Islands, gutted themselves
on the rocky fangs of Northern Ireland’s hostile shores. At least
seventeen ships went down in these wild seas, with a loss of more than a
thousand men. Most survivors were duly murdered on shore and stripped
of all possessions. Only a few of these unfortunates made their way
back to Spain.

First Spanish ships of the ill-fated Armada, still lead by the SAN
MARTIN, limped into the harbor of Sanlander, Spain, on September
23, 1588. Considerably less than half of the total returned, and most of
the great commanders were dead or dying along with many of the
crews. Medina Sidonia blamed himself for all the misfortunes of the
Enterprise, but King Philip would hear none of this and kept him on in
his service.

But all was not peace and thankfulness in England. Faced with
bankruptcy, the Crown could ill afford to pay off her victorious sailors
and send them home, so many were dying of disease and malnutrition
aboard their ships. Frobisher and Drake were accusing each other of
blundering and cowardice, John Hawkins and Lord Howard were vastly
dissatisfied.

Impetuous Sir Francis Drake was now planning his own Armada as
a private venture, and he assembled sixty English merchantmen, sixty
assorted Dutch ships, and six royal navy greatships. His idea was to
destroy as many Spanish Armada ships as he could find in port, and to
take with him one Don Antonio de Crato and establish him on the
throne of Portugal, thereby wresting control of that country from King
Philip.

This ill-conceived expedition was foredoomed to failure. When finally
launched in June, 1589, Drake’s ships sailed southward to La
Coruna, where Commander Bertendona scuttled his ship, the SAN
JUAN, to keep her from falling into enemy hands. Drake’s men captured
the city, but little booty was to be had.

Later, they sailed on to Lisbon where they found the Portuguese
unwilling to accept Don Antonio as their king. They subsequently set
out for the Azores, but the stormy Atlantic willed that they should never
reach those islands. The English Armada was forced to return to England
with 8,000 of Drake’s men dead and a number of his ships lost, and
he was in total disgrace with his queen.

Out of the lengthy war with its terrible price in men and ships, Spain
lost her dominion over France and the Netherlands. England kept her
eyes on the sea and eventually secured huge tracts of the New World as
well as the Orient and Africa for her own empire.

In recent years, divers have found the wreckage of some of the
Spanish ships lying at the bottom of the cold, turbulent North Atlantic
off the fierce coast of Northern Ireland. Among the relics recovered from
the remains of a ship identified as the Napalese galleass GIRONA, are
gold and brass ornaments, jewelry, cannon, lead ingots, and cannonballs.
There are also gold and silver coins, pottery, chains, buckles, and
cutlery, in a remarkable collection of momentoes foraged in persistent
salvage operations.

It may be anticipated that in the future the sea will grudgingly surrender
more of her ill-won souvenirs of the Armada, and that we will
gain more precise knowledge of the fate of other Spanish ships.