The Ancient Period	Assyria	Greece	Alexander and the Macedonian shields	Rome
Medieval European Shields	-	-	-	-
Near East and Far East, Africa and the South Seas	The Near East	India	Persia	Turkey
The Far East	Japan	China	-	-
Other Far Eastern Nations	-	-	-	-
Africa, Australia, and the South Sea Islands	Africa	Australia	The South Seas: Borneo	-
-	-	Bibliography	-	-
Equipment	-	-	-	Dragon

"The best defense is a good offense."

"Do unto others,
before they do it to you."

History doesn't record whether a general
-- or an NFL coach first uttered
these famous battlefield cliches. But in
an era when a nuclear attack
could wipe out a kingdom,
the supremacy of offensive
thinking is hardly surprising.

For the individual footsoldier,
the prospect of battle has
rarely been a safe one. However,
before the advent of alphabetized
bombs, military
planners achieved at least
some success in offering their
troops a measure of protection
even Vince Lombardi
could admire.

Indeed, a fascinating chapter
in the big book of warfare
is this search for devices that
offered warriors personal protection
without limiting mobility
or firepower. The evolution
of the shield represents
a vital link in this quest.

Simply stated, the shield
protects a soldier's body from
the enemy's weapons. One
too large offered ample protection
but reduced mobility
and firepower. One too small
increased mobility, but provided
precious little protection.
The evolution of the
shield from earliest times
through the Medieval period
represents an unending
search for a workable compromise
that spans continents
and cultures.

Shields were among the
very earliest means of a warrior's
defense, dating prehistory.
They were produced
from all sorts of materials including
wood, leather, metals,
cloth, even turtle shells.
Size and shape varied enormously, influenced
frequently by weaponry and occasionally
by status and custom. Only
technology allowed a common thread to
this diversity: Modern firearms made
shields museum pieces, although a curator
putting together a representative collection
faces a tough battle.

The ancient period
The first shields used light materials
easily worked with, like wood, leather,
plaited twigs or reeds. Metal shields
were rare, extremely heavy, quite costly
and required the expertise of an artisan.

Late pre-dynastic Egypt (3,000 B.C.)
saw the emergence of the first national
shield. Rectangular in shape, it covered
a man's frame. Composed of animal hide
stretched over a wood frame, the shield
remained popular during the Early Kingdom
Period (2,700 - 2,200 B.C.).

During the same period in Mesopotamia
warriors carried even larger rectangular
shields that covered them completely
from neck to ankle. These too
used a wood frame covered with leather.
Some hides were studded with metal
discs for added protection.

With the introduction of helmet and
body armor during the New Kingdom
(2,100 - 1,788 B.C.), shields became increasingly
smaller. The top was rounded
and slightly wider than the base, which is
straight, a design suggesting protection
primarily for face and upper body. Composed
of wood covered with leather, by
the 13th century B.C. a metal disk was
added to the top portion (the area protecting
the head). A loop or strap allowed
it to be carried on the warrior's
back.

Sea peoples of this era (from Crete,
North Caria and the Lycian Coast) found
a light circular shield very advantageous
in hand-to-hand combat. The Canaanite,
Palestinian and Syrian shields were rectangular,
no larger than 2 feet by 1
foot, and slightly convex. Some were
composed of plaited reeds; other were
made of wood covered with leather which
was studded with metal.

The Hittite had shields shaped like a
rough figure eight, mirroring the contours
of the human body.
These gave almost as much
protection as rectangular
shields, with less weight and
greater mobility.

Assyria
The strength of the Assyrian
infantry lay with its archers,
and their protection was paramount.
Tiglath-Polser III
(745-727 B.C.) introduced
what is known as the "Gerrhon"
shield. This huge shield,
almost the full length of a
man, was composed of wicker.
Held by a shield-bearer,
the shield allowed archers to
shed cumbersome mail coats.

During the reign of Sargon
II (722-705 B.C.), 2 shield-carriers
protected medium
range archers. The 1st held
a gerrhon; the other shielded
the archer's head with a buckler,
a small round shield.

Medium infantry units frequently
carried a large rectangular metal-fronted,
leather convex shield, while light
infantry were issued large
circular wicker shields. By
Ashurbanipal (668-625 B.C.)
a rectangular shield rounded
on top was introduced. Arrows
and javelins glanced off
this convex shield.

Greece

Two distinct shields marked
the Greek Mycenean Period
(1400 B.C.). The more common
was large (four feet or
more) possessing a rough
figure-eight configuration. Composed of
oxhide over a wood frame, some were
dappled black and white or had pieces of
metal reinforcement. Less common was
the slightly smaller "Tower" shield, that
had straight rims at the side and an upward
curve in the top edge.

Both shields were convex and provided
partial protection to the sides as
well as the front of the warrior. They
were not held by handles but were maneuvered
by a strap that passed over the
warrior's left shoulder, behind the neck
and under the right armpit. This allowed
a quick shift from the back, where the
shields were normally carried.

By the 7th century B.C. the dipylon
shield appeared. Shorter than earlier
shields -- never reaching the knees -- it
was enormously wide at the top and bottom
with the sides curving sharply inwards
to a narrow waist in the middle.

The classical Greek shield of the hoplite
(heavy spearmen who thrust rather
than threw the spear) was round, with a
diameter of 3 or more feet. The wood
shield was faced with bronze or a bronze
silhouette engraved in detail. The warrior's
right forearm went through a band
in the center of the shield's protected
side; the left hand held a grip on the outside
rim. When on the march, the
shield was carried on the warrior's back.

Stylistic blazons frequently decorated
these shields. At first the symbols were
individualized, consisting of geometric
patterns, animals (real and mythical)
and birds. Later the blazon represented
its owner’s city-state and served to avoid
identification errors during battle.

Another shield of the classical period
was the pelta. Light javelinmen and slinggers
who wore no armor usually carried
these small, round or crescent-shaped
shields composed of wickerwork faced
with animal skin. The shield was ideally
suited for these light troops whose harrassing
battle tactics required quick
movement.
 

Alexander and the Macedonian shields
The early Macedonian shield was
round with a single center handgrip. A
leather thong fastened around the warrior’s
neck allowed the shield to be slung
over the back quickly in case of retreat.

By the early seventh century B.C., with
the transformation of the Macedonian
infantry into hoplites, the large, round
classic Greek shield was introduced. It
was slightly larger than the Greek shield,
discontinued the neck thong, and was
worn on the left forearm, making phalanxes
vulnerable to attack from their
right. This led to special medium infan-
try, called the Hypaspists, who protected
the right side. Using lighter armor and a
shorter pike (eight to ten feet) their
shield was still round, but lighter and
slightly smaller.

Alexander’s use of the shield as a defensive
weapon is as imaginative as it was
successful. At the Battle of Hydaspes
(325 B.C.), he ordered his infantry to link
their shields together to form a solid
front impenetrable by Indian cavalry and
infantry. When part of his forces were
trapped just west of the Persian gates by
Persians hurling stones from the heights
above, the shields were ordered raised
above their heads and linked together.
Crossing the Jaxartes River (330 B.C.)
under heavy archery fire, Alexander
commanded the infantry in the boats to
place their shields in a testuado information
(overlapping of shields to cover all
sides including the top). The small boats
ferrying the troops became. armored,
protecting crew and passenger alike.

Rome

The scutum, the Roman shield, originated
in the Ysgwyd, an oval Celtic
shield constructed of laminated wood
four or more feet high.

Early Roman
shields follow the oval shape and were
five feet high, constructed of three layers
of wood about two millimeters thick
glued across each other to form a curved
piece of plywood. Strips of wood were
glued on the back to add strength; the
center strip was covered with iron or
bronze to form a handle.

Leather covered the wood, with the
front sometimes having a layer of linen.
Edges were bound with rawhide stitched
through the wood, with bronze stitching
during the first and second centuries
A.D. Metal bosses (knob-like protrusions)
and designed pieces decorated the front.
Legion emblems soon replaced these,
each legion possessing its own shield
design. Towards the end of the first century
B.C., the rounded edges of the
shield were eliminated. The shield was
rectangular-shaped until the empire
collapsed.

The scutum was unique: Its cylindrical
lateral shape gave maximum side as well
as frontal protection. The five-foot height
protected most of the legionnaire’s body,
leaving little area exposed for the weaponry
of his enemies. Capable of stopping
arrow and spear, it provided an impregnable
image to opponents.
 

The ancient shields took on many configurations.
The materials used in their
construction were predominantly lightweight.
Where metal was utilized it was
usually for decoration or identification
rather than added strength. A light shield
suitable for battle could not be made.
The elite heavy infantry of ancient times
generally carried large shields emphasizing
defense over mobility.

Medieval European shields
The shape and construction of the European
shield evolved from the 9th
through 17th centuries. Improvements
in armor, continued refinements
in firearms and changes in battlefield
tactics played a vital role in this process.

After the fall of Rome, Byzantium was
a ray of enlightenment during the Dark
Ages. Its large circular shield was frequently
studded and covered with metal
fittings. Charlemagne’s army and its successors
of the 9th century carried similar
shields of varying sizes. Both had two
straps: one through which the left arm
was passed, the other for the right hand
to grasp. A longer strap allowed the warrior
to carry his shield over his back or
his saddle.

The circular shield was the principal
European shield through the middle of
the 11th century. But a new shield was
already in use in Byzantium long before
the first crusade. This long oval tapered
to a point at the bottom and had a central,
raised boss.

This kite-shaped shield was as tall as a
man and is sometimes referred to as the
“Norman” shield. It proved an indispensable
defense for the armored knight,
supplementing the limited protection offered
by the Hauberk or mailed shirt. The
shield’s shape was compatible to horseman
and infantry alike, providing very
little free area for an opponent to strike.

Made from solid wooden planks, the
outside was leather-covered. The entire
shield was held together and reinforced
with decorative iron bands. The inside
was cushioned and had two leather handles
for the left forearm. Another strap
passed around the neck to protect against
loss during battle. The shield became
increasingly curved as it became more
popular, which offered even greater allaround
protection to the warrior.

Towards the end of the 12th century
and the beginning of the 13th, the kite
shield was shortened until it finally
reached about three feet. Even at this
height mounted and unmounted warriors
had ample protection.

During the first crusade, King Saint-
Louis ordered his infantry to implant the
point of their shields in the ground and to
fight from behind them. During this same
period, the cental boss disappeared leaving
the entire surface free for the application
of coat-of-arms or other means of
identification.

During the 13th century the heavy kite
shield became even smaller, because of
improvements in armor (including the
introduction of the helm to protect the
head and reinforced mail) and the need
for increased mobility. The new shield
was less than two feet long but retained
the triangular shape. Easily manipulated
with the left hand, a sling allowed the
knight to carry it on his back or hang it
from his saddle.

Also during the 13th century a specialized
footman’s shield, the pavise, was
introduced. Oval, triangular or even quadrangular
shaped, these were large enough
to completely protect an infantryman.
With the iron point at the bottom, the
shield could be quickly planted in the
ground. Crossbowmen especially liked
the sanctuary it afforded during the prolonged
periods required in reloading
their weapons. It also proved extremely
useful in storming fortress walls.

Despite its imposing size, the pavise
was surprisingly light. It was constructed
from slats of light wood glued together,
with hide or parchment glued to the
wood. Varnished for waterproofing and
greater durability, their surfaces were
frequently painted with colors of their
commander, township or royal master.

The pavise was held by grips and carried
on its owner’s back from a strap during
marches. It continued in widespread
usage in Europe until the first part of the
16th century.

A variation of the pavise was the mantlet.
Man-sized, its wooden planks were
covered with leather; a hinged or detached
pole supported it to shield a standing
bowman or crossbowman. Easily
and cheaply made, they were common to
all medieval European armies. A storming
party carried them above their heads
while crossing the killing ground in front
of a fortress. Others were placed in rows
to form a sheltered path to and from
siege engines near besieged castles.
Some were mounted on wheels for ease
and quickness of movement.

During the first half of the 14th century,
the knight’s shield began another
dramatic series of changes. Improvements
in armor greatly decreased the
shield’s importance and by the beginning
of the 15th century it covered no
more than the left shoulder and arm of
the knight. Using one-piece construction
and laterally concaved, it had many
configurations. In jousting it was the
“Manteau d’armes” and protected the
body from lance thrusts. Made of either
wood or iron it rested on the left side of
the powerful jousting armor, completely
protecting the chest and left shoulder.
The purpose of the shield was to catch
the point of an opponent’s lance and
prevent it from slipping so that either it
was broken or the opponent unhorsed.

The popularity and use of the circular
shield never ceased in medieval Europe.
While other shapes and styles prevailed,
the buckler, targe, or target, as it was
known, continued in use. In Byzantium it
was small, used by both cavalry and infantry.
The thin, round Viking shield was
made from wood reinforced by metal
with an iron disc or boss in the middle. In
Scotland, it was made from wood, covered
with leather ‘and studded with
nails. A sharp iron spike protruding from
the shield’s center gave it the offensive
capabilities of a thrusting weapon. The
Buckler also saw extensive use in France,
Germany and Italy where it remained
popular through the sixteenth century.

The circular shield became known as
the “rondache” during the 16th century
and was made entirely from iron or steel,
making it relatively effective against the
crude firearms of the period. While varying
in size and weight, some larger pieces
weighed as much as 80 to 100 pounds.

At first used strictly as a horseman’s
defense, by the next century it was also
used extensively by the infantry.

By the end of the 17th century, the
shield had disappeared from most European
battlefields, except parts of Eastern
and Central Europe. Improvements in
the accuracy and penetrating power of
firearms along with the increased efficiency
of artillery made battlefield mobility
essential and both armor and the battle
shield became ineffective and obsolete.
Shields did continue as highly decorative
parade pieces through the 18th
century.

Near and Far East, Africa and the South Seas
No area of the world produced a greater
variety of shields than the East, Africa
and the South Seas. Methods of warfare,
quality of armor and insufficient metal
deposits combined in some areas with
lack of technological skill to influence
style and composition. Yet, even those of
the most basic construction proved surprisingly
efficient. A rattan war shield
from the Aru Islands covered with cotton
twist reportedly stopped a bullet.

The Near East
The shields of the Near East were almost
without exception round and light.
They proved ideally adapted to the mobile
warfare practiced by these nations.
Some showed a sophistication in manufacture
equal to their European counterparts.
Indeed, in lightness alone, they
were superior to the heavy, even clumsy
shields of the medieval European knight.

India
The earliest shields of India were rectangular
with rounded tops similar to
those of Ancient Egypt. Cavalry shields
were small and bell-shaped with a broad,
rounded base carried downwards. The
materials used in the construction of
these 1st century A.D. shields is uncertain,
but leather stretched across a wooden
frame seems most likely.

The medieval Indian shield (the dhal)
was almost always circular and quite
light, whether made from hide or metal.
The hide shield was the most common
until the 17th century; buffalo and rhinoceros
had the greatest durability.

Averaging two or three feet in diameter,
this was the most common Indian
shield. Smaller hide shields nine inches
to two feet in diameter were used by cavalry
and for parrying. Most had a marked
lip to catch an opponent’s weapon.

The metal shield became common
during the 17th century. These frequently
had a rim fitted with a sleeve of brass
and surface decorated with chiseling or
etchings. All had four bosses which acted
as washers for riveting of hand-loop
rings on the inside. These rings secured
the corners of a square cushion of padded
cloth or velvet to protect the hand. Leather
straps attached to the hand hoops
were used to to hold the shield.

Shield decoration was by several methods,
mainly koftgari (false damascene)
or by chiseling in low relief. Shield designs
ranged from scenes of ordinary life
to mythical beasts to fancy floral and
geometric designs.

An interesting variation of the metal
shield was the madu or maru fist shield
from North India. This small circular metal
shield had pairs of steel-tipped horns,
sharp steel spikes or blades protruding
from its sides. It proved an excellent parrying
weapon capable of offensive as
well as defensive measures.

Persia
Ancient Persia consisted of many conquered
nationalities welded together by
strong Persian rule. Their shields varied
with each nationality. These included
the Assyrian gerrhon, the wicker figure-eight
shapes of Iranian spearmen, the
small round buckler of the Mysians and
the large circular wooden shields of the
Moschi and Tibareni.

The shields of 13th and early 14th century
Persia were small, circular and convex,
made from hide with metal bosses.
A light circular shield became popular as
cavalry and mobility again became dominant.
This was made from cane cleverly
interwoven with silk threads to produce
remarkable geometric patterns, and was
fitted with a central steel boss. Its inside
section was lined with fabric, and a
leather cushion was placed behind the
central boss, over which was braced a
plaited leather grip. The ends of this
were secured to four iron rings riveted
through four ornamental washers.

The circular steel shield was often
made to match a particular piece of armor.
These tended to be more a flattened
conical section than in neighboring Turkey
and India. A prime characteristic of
this Persian defense piece was the pronounced
lip at the edge. It had no central
boss, but four small ones were attached
over the points where the grip rings were
riveted. The surface of the Persian shield
was generally of high quality. Real and
false damascene in gold and silver, chiseling,
engraving and piercing plus a
wide variety of contrasting colors were
used to make a variety of exceptionally
beautiful shields of high artistic quality.

Turkey
During the crusades, the Turks used
both the kite-shaped shield and the more
common circular shield. The round shield
with its light and resilient defense was
made from Persian cane and proved
ideal for the mounted warfare that characterized
the Turkish medieval military
machine. The shield had a large steel
boss and woven patterns of colored silk
covered its front.

The circular metal shield was also
popular. Convex, it follows closely those
of India and Persia.

The Far East
The Far Eastern shields also tended to
be circular and convex. In China and
other areas where armor was inferior,
the shield proved to be the primary
means of defense. Japan, in contrast,
with its exceptionally effective armor
made little use of the shield.

Japan
The primary weapons of the Samurai
— the bow, the two-handed sword (katana)
and the polearms (yari and naginata)
—restricted the use of a defensive
shield. Instead, the warriors relied upon
their unique, complicated and very effective
armor.

Flat, rectangular shields with pointed
tops were used in Proto-historic Japan.
Unfortunately, their size and constuction
is uncertain.

A large wooden infantry shield (tate)
supported by a hinged prop at the back
was used from the eleventh through
nineteenth centuries. Similar to the European
pavise, it was used to form defensive
walls on land, on sides of boats
and on castle walls. They were frequently
painted with black bars with a man at
the top.

Other types had a rack to support
bundles of bamboo; a right-angled screen
with folding loops (biobu-date); and
wheels (kurma-date) similar to the European
mantlet. The power of the Japanese
bow, however, could penetrate these
wooden shields.

The hand shield (te-date) appears more
for ceremonial occasions than military
actions. These were usually small, metal,
rectangular or round with fancy decorations
or animals, often dragons. A cavalry
version (bajo-date) was small and rectangular
shaped. It, too, was highly
decorated.

A unique Japanese shield was the war
fan. The Uchiwa was carried by Japanese
officers as a mark of rank and used
for signalling and as a parrying weapon.
First made from lacquered leather, latter
ones were made of metal, iron or bronze
inlaid or embossed. The uchiwa does not
open or shut.
 

The tetsun-sen (iron fan) was carried
by officers of lower ranks. When closed,
it looked like an ordinary folding fan. The
outer sticks — and sometimes all the
sticks — were made of steel. These fans
were covered with parchment, usually
portraying the sun of Japan on a background
of a different color. The most
common color combinations used were
red, gold, and black. The tetsun-sen
proved a very effective parrying weapon
and the heavier fans proved also dangerous
clubs.

China

Chinese armor was generally ineffective,
ranging from paper to brigandine
(two thicknesses of cloth reinforced by
plates of iron, copper and leather).

Early infantry shields (putan) were
long and narrow. A shorter, narrow shield
(kie tun) was used by charioteers. Boards
or rhinoceros usually were used, but
hide, bamboo, rattan, wicker and grass
were also utilized, and had the advantage
of being so light that they could
float on water.
In 976 A.D., Tai Tsung equipped his
infantry with cowhide shields 8 feet
long. His cavalry carried small, round
red lacquered shields.

A favored medieval infantry shield was
the lip'ai, 5-feet high && 3-feet
wide, it was designed specifically for
siege work in the manner of the European
pavise or the Japanese tate. An interesting
variation was the lang ya pai.
Made from elm with nails fixed in the top
and blades on all four edges, it was suspended
from city walls byropes attached
on the front and back. As besiegers
attempted to scale the walls, the
shield could be swung back and forth or
simply dropped on the helpless attackers
with devastating effect.

The most common Chinese shield,
however, was the po, a large convex circular
shield carried through the 19th
century. Composed of wicker with a
cane loop for the forearm, it had a
straight wooden hand grip. Many were
painted with traditional tiger faces, and
some had a brass boss in the center.
 
 

All shields were lacquered; red was the
most favored, based upon the belief that
color terrified one's enemies. Black was
also often used. The lacquer preserved
the leather and wood, preventing warping
and distortion in China's varied and
changing climatic conditions.

Other Far Eastern Nations
Shields in other Far Eastern nations
were varied. Korea with its close cultural
as well as military contacts with China,
had shields closely resembling those of
the Chinese. The Tibetan shield, while
circular, was smaller slightly convex and
frequently constructed from buffalo skin.
Lacquered, many possessed four brass
bosses that covered the hand loop rivets,
and a fifth center ornamental boss.

In the Himalayan kingdom of Bhutan,
the circular shield was also frequently
constructed from buffalo hide. Lacquered
black and possessing a red rim, the brass
bosses made a colorful yet effective defensive
piece. A central ornamental boss
is often engraved and pierced, sometimes
carrying the mask of a grotesque
Buddhist guardian to drive away evil
spirits.

The Mongol shield was especially
adapted to highly mobile cavalry. Carried
by all warriors, it was small, made
from wicker covered by thick leather.

In Ceylon large shields were called palanga;
smaller ones were palisa or paliha.
Long, shoulder high shields were in
use during the fifteenth century, but
small rectangular targets equipped with
single and double grips were popular by
the 16th century.

Shields were made from gaduma wood
with outer and inner coverings of elephant
or buffalo hide treated with glue
and decorated with lacquer, lead, steel
and silver. Bark shields coated with lead
had the unique capabilities of retaining
an opponent’s sword after penetration.
Many of these were in an elliptical form,
some as large as three by four feet. Bark
shields were normally used for fencing,
occasionally for battle. Those painted
silver were used primarily for parades.

Africa, Australia and
the South Sea Islands
Much of Africa, as well as the South
Sea Islands and Australia, not only lacked
sufficient metal deposits, but also the
necessary technological skills to effectively
work metals. Their shields were
constructed of more basic materials such
as hides, wicker, wood, bark, and even
grass and turtle shells. Despite this, many
proved nearly as effective as their metal
cousins.

Africa

The huge continent of Africa produced
distinct all-wood shields are favored. <grammar>
The 1st, the Tamarang, is broad and
flat, an infinite variety of shields. The
Zulu nation of the south relied upon its
infantry’s great mobility. Armed with
heavy spears (assegais) or war clubs
(knobkerry), the Zulu lmpis (battle units)
closed with their enemy to decide the
contest. Their shield had to provide maximum
protection with minimum weight.
Usually oval-shaped and two to four feet
long, cowhide was secured to a number
of wooden sticks by leather strips woven
into parallel slots. The shield’s width was
one-half to two- thirds its length.
 

Called an ishulunga (ishilunga) many
were stengthened by weaving two strips
of similar hide about three inches wide
through two lines of slits located down
the center of the shield. A stick extending
down the back of the shield (and
frequently protruding at top and bottom)
further strengthened the shield, serving
also as a handle.

The rise of the Zulu nation was initiated
by their great chief, Shaka (1819-
1828). Shields were made larger. They
were wetted and dried to strengthen
their hides. Each lmpi regiment was assigned
special colors.

The shield became an offensive as well
as a defensive weapon. The Zulu warrior
was taught to hook the left edge of his
shield over the left edge of his opponent’s
shield. Then, with a powerful backward
sweep, he spun the foe to the right.
Thrown off balance by the move his opponent
was wide open to the thrust of an
assegai or knobkerry.

In tropical Africa, shields composed of
hide or basketwork were common. Rhinoceros
skin was prized highest, although
giraffe was also valued (more for
its colorful skin than its strength).

Perhaps the most unique African
shields are the club shields of the Dinkas
from Central Africa. The quayre has the
appearance of a neatly carved stick about
one yard long with an oval-shaped swell
in the center that is hollowed out one one
side to make a handguard. The dang resembles
a very heavy bow. The wooden
part is held in the hand while the opponent’s
blow is received on the string.
While crude, the dang proved a highly
effective defensive piece, simple to make
and easy to wield

Conquered early by the Moslems, northern
African shields are heavily influenced
by the Indo-Persian tradition. Predominantly
round and convex, they varied in
size from small bucklers to large, heavy
infantry shields. Metal shields appear
more popular than leather, although both
are used extensively. In general, the
quality of manufacture is inferior to Persian
pieces.

Australia
In Australia two distinct all-wood
shields were favored. The tamarang, designed
for war, is broad and flat, much
longer in length than width. The bemaruk,
is very narrow and thick, sometimes
not more than an inch wide and four to
five inches thick at the middle. Designed
for duels with clubs or throwing spears,
their thickness allowed them to absorb
blows while their length and narrowness
are ideal for knocking aside spears with
a quick turn of a wrist.

The South Seas: Borneo
The Dyaks of Borneo are known for
skillful use of a shield they called the
kliau (klau). It measured three to four
feet long and eighteen to twenty inches
wide. The close combat techniques of
these natives dictated a large shield for
protection at the sacrifice of jungle mobility.
Constructed from a single piece of
wood, the ends are pointed“ and the
shield curves in both directions with a
ridge down the center. It is laced across
the ends to protect from splitting. The
entire surface is frequently decorated,
painted with grotesque or geometrical
figures or covered by human hair acquired
from slain enemies.

Similar shields of a simpler design are
found among the Nagas of Assam (northeast
India) as well as in northern areas of
Burma.

The Philippines represent a treasure
trove of different shields. The Moro’s
used round wooden targets of very light
wood, yet of considerable thickness.
The Mindanao shields are made from
carved wood, inlaid with shell and decorated
with tufts of human hair, and come
in various shapes. The lgorot of Luzon
had shields with three prongs projecting
from the top and two from the bottom, all
carved from a single piece of wood.

In parts of the South Seas, Southern
India and primitive parts of Southeast
Asia the shell of the tortoise is used as a
shield. Its hardness, combined with its
relatively light weight, made it readily
adaptable as a shield with only minimal
modifications.

In the Aru Islands, rattan was covered
with cotton twist to make a very light yet
strong and tough war shield. Near the
middle of the shield was an armhole with
a shutter or flap over it.

Bibliography

Ancient Period

    Buttery, Alan,
Armies and Enemies of Ancient Egypt and Assyria, 3200 B.C. to 612 B.C.
(Wargames Research Group,
1975)

    Connolly, Peter,
The, Roman Army,
(Macdonald Educational, 1975)

    Greenhalgh, P.A.L.,
Early Greek Warfare,
(Cambridge, 1973)

    Nelson, Richard,
Armies of the Greek and Persian Wars, 500-350 B.C.
(Wargames
Research, 1975)
    Saxtorph, Neils M.,
Warriors and Weapons of Early Times
(MacMillan, 1972)
    Simkins, Michael,
The Roman Army from Caesar to Trajan
(Osprey, 1974)

   Snodgrass, A.M.
Arms and Armor of the Greeks,
(Cornell University, 1967)

   Yadin, Yigael,
The Art of Warfare in Biblical Lands,
(McGraw-Hill, 1963)

Medieval Europe

   Ashdown, Charles Henry,
European Arms & Armor,
(Brussel & Brussel, New York, 1967)

   Heath, Ian,
Armies of the Dark Ages,
(Wargames Research Group, 1976)

   Saxtorph, Neils,
Warriors and Weapons of Early Times
(Macmillan, New York, 1972)

   Stone, George,
A Glossary of the Construction, Decoration and use of Arms
(Jack Brusel, 1934)

    Wilkinson, Frederick.
Edged Weapons,
(Doubleday & Company, New York, 1970)

    Chambers, James,
The Devil's Horsemen,
(Atheneum, New York, 1979)
    Robinson, H. Russell,
Oriental Armour,
(Walker & Company, New York, 1967)

    Saxtorph, Neils,
Warriors and Weapons of Early Times,
(Macmillian, New York, 1972)

    Storry, Richard,
The Way of the Samurai,
(G.P. Putman's Sons, New York, 1978)

    Stone, George,
A Glossary of the Construction, Decoration and Use of Arms and Armour,
(Jack Brusel, 1934)

    Turnbull, S. R.,
The Samurai, A Military History
(Macmillan, New York, 1977)

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