To students of military history, the age known as the Renaissance
can be said to extend from the end of the Hundred Years War in 1453,
to the final ban on pikes issued by Queen Anne of England in 1703. The
period began with the dominance of the armored lancer, and ended
with the dominance of the musket armed foot soldier. In this series, we
will examine the major armies/types of soldiery found in Renaissance
Europe, and the tactical systems that went along with them. The period
is an immensely fertile one for the wargamer, full of color and variety
with troops ranging from Swiss Pikemen to Hungarian Hussars, Feudal
Knights to pistol wielding Reitiers.

Generalship in this era rose to a degree of expertise not seen since
classical times, Gonzolo de Cordoba, Gaston of Foix, Maurice of
Nassau, and Gustavus Adolphus, all left an indelible mark on the art of
war. It was the age of the great Vauban, who revolutionized the science
of siegecraft and fortification by the end of the 17th century. We will
begin our study by examining the state of the art as found in the first half
of the 15th century.

Warfare consisted for the most part, of disorganized melees with
occasional glimpses of genius found here and there in England and
France, and the phenomena of the Hussite Wars. The infantry, before
its resurgence, played little part in a battle until the opposing cavalry
forces had finished. The armored feudal knight was the dominant force
on the battlefield, and the poorly armed and trained infantry (for the
most part) could do little to stand up to a charge. Certain developments
however, signaled the revival of the foot soldier. There were three major
developments which will be discussed briefly here, and in more detail
later on when concerned with particular armies.

The Hundred Years War between England and France had already
begun the resurgence of the infantryman, due primarily to the use of a
single weapon, the English Longbow. First used in the campaigns
against Scotland and Wales, the longbow was the most efficient missile
weapon of the pre-gunpowder era (i.e. before the introduction of efficient
arquebuses and muskets), though some would argue many years
later, that it was still more efficient than a musket. In fact such a notable
person as Benjamin Franklin urged its adoption as the standard arm of
the American forces in the revolution. Nevertheless, its rapid rate of fire,
more than three times that of a crossbow, gave to the footsoldier for the
first time, a weapon that would allow him to hold his own against
cavalry. Interestingly, it was also found to be very effective when used in
conjunction with cavalry, against the other major infantry weapon, the
pike.

The pike first made its appearance as a major infantry weapon in
the Low Countries, Flanders and the Brabant, and soon spread to
Scotland and Switzerland. It was an ideal weapon for use by ill-trained
troops on the defensive, but in the hands of well-trained infantry, it
could be a deadly offensive tool. Varying in length from 12 to 21 feet,
the pike allowed infantry to keep cavalry at bay, while missile armed
troops shot them from the saddle. The heyday of the Swiss Pikemen was
yet to come, but already by the mid-fifteenth century, they had built a
fearsome reputation for bravery and skill.

The third great weapon that arose to sound the death knell of
Feudalism, was the Hussite wagon laager developed by Jan Ziska of
Bohemia. Ziska had seen a version of the laager used in Poland against
Teutonic Knights and Russians, and it seemed the ideal weapon for an
army made up predominantly of lightly armed and badly trained
peasants. He took the idea one step further however, training his men
with strict discipline and religious fervor, Ziska turned the wagon laager
into a remarkable offensive tool.

The combination of these three forces, caused military leaders to
reassess and re-think the value and use of the armored horseman. The
introduction of early gunpowder weapons made the horseman’s position
even more untenable and before long, new types of mounted
troops began to appear.

The Hungarians and Venetians in their constant warfare with the
Ottoman Empire, had long realized the value of light, fast moving
cavalry for skirmishing, scouting and raiding. The Venetian cavalry,
called Stardiot, could be called the forerunners of dragoons, for armed
with spear, bow or crossbow, they were equally adept at fighting
mounted or on foot. The Hungarian cavalry were the famous Hussars,
and constituted their national fighting force. Without a real army, the
Hungarians had to rely on levies who could be raised on short notice,
and counted on effectively to deal with any threat. Armed with a bow
and curved saber, the Hussars were fierce, light and fast moving, and by
the end of the next century their imitators could be found in many armies.

The Renaissance was the great age of the Mercenary, and until
France and Sweden began to raise national armies, mercenaries were in
great demand throughout Europe. Swiss, Flemings, Landsknecht,
English and many others, offered their services to the highest bidder,
each using the weapon with which they were most proficient. One might
find English longbowmen loosing their shafts in the service of Italian
Dukes, or Genoese crossbowmen backing up the charge of French
knights. While their reputation has never been good, most mercenaries
could be counted on to render excellent service to their employers, as
long as the purse remained open.

Artillery was in its infancy at the beginning of the period, but steadily
improved in quality throughout the age, with the French and Spanish
making the greatest advances. By the beginning of the War of the Spanish
Succession (1701-1714) massive batteries of cannon were common,
and sieges began to replace open field battles as the most common
type of military activity.

In short, this is a period about which enough can never be said, and
in the articles that will follow, we will examine in depth the major participants
and weapons of the age.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Machiavelli, Niccolo
    The Prince
    The Art of War
    The Discourses

Oman, C.W.C.
    The Art of War in the 15th Century
    The Art of War in the 16th Century

Mattingly, Garrett
    The Armada

Dupuy & Dupuy
    The Encyclopedia of Military History

Wise, Terence
    Medieval Warfare

Monluc, Blaise
    The Journal of Blaise du Monluc

Next time, we will begin our study with the most famous of all the
soldiery to come out of the age, The Swiss Pikeman.

Part II -- The Swiss
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Dungeons & Dragons	-	Dragon magazine	-	The Dragon #24

The sturdy, mountaineers of Switzerland have always had a fierce
desire to be free and independent. Being primarily a pastoral people,
and never a great power, they had scant resources to raise a powerful,
well-armed fighting force. However, their tremendous bravery and loyalty
made them fierce foes, and with a few simple weapons they forged
a formidable fighting force. Three weapons were responsible for the
Swiss rise to greatness; The Halberd, The Pike and The Crossbow. Before
the pike came into vogue it was the halberd that served as the main
arm of the mountain peoples. Charles The Bold and Maximillian of
Austria were both victims of the halberd’s deadly blade. Defending the
mountain passes leading into their country, they presented an impenetrable
wall of steel, halberdiers, backed up by armored men with
great two-handed swords and Lucerne Hammers. Made with a broad
axe blade as its main weapon, a long point for thrusting, and some
fashion of hook to pull riders from their horses, the halberd was indeed a
murderous weapon, and in the hands of a brawny Swiss mountaineer, it
could cleave through the finest armor in Europe, and flesh and bone as
well.

The well known legend of William Tell, illustrates the skill of the
Swiss with another deadly weapon, the crossbow. The effectiveness of
the crossbow in puncturing heavy armor, made it an ideal weapon for
the lightly armored Swiss infantry, who had to defend themselves
against armored Imperial cavalry and infantry. The crossbowmen generally
functioned as skirmishers ahead of the main army and then faded
back once the battle was joined. When effective handguns were introduced,
the Swiss were quick to pick up on them, and used them to
replace at least a portion of their crossbows. By 1500, 80% - 100% of
their light troops were armed with handguns and arquebus.

It was the pike however that made the Swiss infantryman the terror
of Europe, and the most sought after mercenary of the age. The average
pike of the Renaissance varied in length from 16 to 18 feet. The Swiss
used a monster 21 feet long with 3 feet of steel protecting the tip from
being slashed by swords or axes. The tremendous weight of the weapon
was such that it required great strength and training to use it properly. In
the hands of the Swiss, it achieved an effectiveness not seen since the
days of Alexander the Great.

The Swiss did in fact adopt the ancient phalanx formation used by
Alexander, but improved on its use substantially. First, instead of using a
single phalanx flanked by supporting troops, the Swiss used three
phalanxes, a Van, a Main Battle and a Rear, each assigned a specific
task on the battlefield. They were generally echeloned back from the
right, with the rear battle refused until needed. The van would begin the
attack by striking the flank of the enemy, as the main battle pushed into
the center, the rear battle waited to see where it was most needed. and
generally provided the final push that would result in victory.

The second improvement was in the cohesiveness and stability of
the individual phalanx. The phalanx of ancient Greece was found to be
completely disorganized when drawn on to rough ground, where the
hoplites could not keep proper step. The Swiss however, were so well
trained that they could advance over any sort of terrain without losing
step. They were the only infantry of that age, or perhaps of any age,
capable of taking the offensive against cavalry. They were remarkably
fast at the charge, and the sight of this veritable forest coming at full
speed, was enough to shake even the bravest enemy. Only with the
introduction of the Spanish Sword and Buckler men and later the
Landsknecht, were soldiers found who could meet the Swiss on an
almost equal footing. It is interesting to note however, that in contests
between the Swiss and their Landsknecht copies, the Swiss were almost
always victorious.

The individual soldier was generally poor and unarmored, his sole
protection might consist of a leather jerkin and an open helmet. The
gaudy uniforms usually associated with the Swiss, were really not
worn until the early 16th century, and even then did not approach the
color of the Landsknecht. The nobles, and others who could afford
some degree of armor, were generally formed as the front ranks of the
phalanx, or armed as halberdiers and two-handed swordsmen who
would stay in the rear until melee was joined. The crossbow and handgun
armed skirmishers, generally made up any where from 10% to
30% of the entire army, and would have been completely unarmored.
There is some indication that armored crossbowmen were used for defensive
purposes, usually wearing half-armor and a visored sallet.
Cavalry was used in small numbers, and was generally made up of the
wealthier gentry or German allies, and was equipped and used as the
typical heavy, armored knight of the period.

The downfall of the Swiss came in their total disregard for the use
and effectiveness of artillery. At battles such as La Biocca and Ravenna,
their tightly packed phalanxes took a terrible toll from the efficient
Spanish artillery, and once their formations had been broken, they were
easy prey for the disciplined Spanish infantry. Even after these disasters,
the Swiss maintained their reputation, and were sought after mercenaries
throughout the period. They made up the major part of the
French infantry all through this era, and even after the day of the pike
had ended, regiments of Swiss infantry remained in the French army
through the Napoleonic Wars, and formed the basis for the renowned
Foreign Legion of the 19th century. Their loyalty to their employer was
well known, even when less desirable elements entered their formations,
they remained one of the best trained and disciplined infantry
formations in Europe.

Colors for their uniforms are generally left up to the imagination of
the individual wargamer, though the Swiss Guards of the Vatican generally
wore orange and blue stripes. Many flags were carried, for a single
phalanx could contain men from many cantons, each with their own
distinctive color. The Swiss were one of the primary forces in the resurgence
of the infantry man, and made up an era of the Renaissance
that should not be ignored.

Next Time — The Condotierre and the Papacy.
(For more information on the Swiss Armies, See The Irresistible Force
by Gary Gygax in TD-22).

Part III -- The Condotierre and The Papacy
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Dungeons & Dragons	-	Dragon magazine	-	The Dragon #25

If Woody Allen would ever decide to turn his comedic talents to
writing history, the result would very probably read like a history of Italy
in the Age of the Condotierre. Few periods in history could possibly be
as full of petty squabbles and pointless maneuvering, as this age when
greedy, mercenary captains controlled the destiny of the Italian City-
States. Warfare was formalized to the point where it almost became a
life-size chess match, with few fatalities. However, their military system
does assume a certain importance in our study of the period.

With few exceptions, which will be discussed, the majority of the
city-state forces, consisted of high priced, un-enthusiastic condotierre
mercenaries. The Condotierre captains, realizing how expensive a
commodity they had to offer, strove constantly to find a way to reduce
casualties in battle, and increase the number of wealthy, ransomable,
prisoners. Naturally the first way to reduce casualties, is to arm men so
heavily that it becomes almost impossible to kill them. This resulted in
armies moving slower and slower, a full charge being almost impossible.
The lack of movement eventually resulted in battles becoming a series
of intricate maneuvers, where the primary objective would be to force
your opponent into an untenable position, where he would either have
to surrender, or be cut down by crossbowmen, whose heavy bolts could
penetrate the heaviest armor.

Later, when the need for mobility was realized, the Condotierre
captains began to employ a type of light cavalryman known as a
Stradiot. The Stradiot served essentially as a dragoon, trained to fight
on horse or foot, and very useful for scouting and skirmishing. The
infantry of the Condotierre companies consisted almost entirely of
lightly armored missile troops. Crossbows tended to be the most common
weapon, with longbows used occasionally, and later on, small
numbers of handguns found their way into the formation. One quite
notable exception to the norm, was the famous White Company of Sir
John Haukwood. This force of English mercenaries, consisted of its
height of 2,000 longbowmen, many veterans of the French Wars, and
2,000 mounted men at arms. They were well known for their bravery
and outstanding service to their employers.

The native forces of the individual city-states, consisted almost entirely
of infantry, and varied in quality from miserable to decent.
Machiavelli’s famous experiments with the Pisan militia, showed that
locally raised levies could be made into a competent fighting force,
when adequately trained and led. Generally, the levies were armed with
a variety of polearms, glaives, bills and halberds being common. The
amount of armor depended on the wealth of the city, and the particular
way in which the troops were used. Garrison troops tended to be more
heavily armored than field troops. The forces of the more powerful
cities, Genoa, Venice, Milan and Florence, tended to be a bit more
competent than most. The Genoese crossbowmen had of course built
up a fair reputation for skill in France, and were considered prize troops.
Generalship on the whole, was not outstanding, the Sforzas, the Borgias,
and the Medici were about the best that could be found, though
they could hardly be called great captains. Machiavelli was the preeminent
tactician and strategist of the day, but he was more concerned
with matters of state, not commanding armies in the field. His “Art of
War,” is a classic work, but unfortunately was not read widely enough
by his contemporaries.

The use of artillery was virtually non-existent, until the lessons of
the French invasion in 1490, taught them the value of cannon. Even the
Venetians still used Greek-Fire on their galleys, and only mounted small
pieces of cannon for close fighting. Interestingly though, it was an Italian,
Niccolo Tartaglia, who invented the gunner’s quadrant in the later
16th century, that enabled artillerists to set range and trajectory more
accurately. Inventiveness was certainly not lacking in the minds of Italian
thinkers, for DaVinci’s notebooks are full of ingenious and highly
advanced military weapons, and most Italian artists dabbled to a degree,
in military affairs.

There is a tremendous paradox in Italian affairs in this era, in that
the most powerful and most militaristic of all the rulers was the Pope, the
representative of God on earth, the most “peace” loving of all men. In
reality though, the Papal States presented a tight confederation of vassals,
who swore undying loyalty to the Pope. The two Popes who figured
most greatly in this era, Gregory and Alexander, were masters of
political intrigue and manipulation of petty nobles. The core of the
Papal forces was the Pope’s personal guard of Swiss mercenaries. Their
loyalty was legendary, and they provided unshakable support to the
less reliable levies of the Pope’s vassals.

As for costume, this is a very fertile era for the imagination. The
mercenary companies generally wore some sort of uniform dress or at
least colors, according to the whim of the captain. Hawkwood’s White
Company, as its name implies, wore white surcoats emblazoned with a
red cross of St. George. The city-states generally fielded levies dressed
in their ordinary clothing, embellished with armor, and usually gave
them some type of sign to wear taken from the city coat of arms.

The Italian forces then, should not be ignored in games set in the
earlier Renaissance, and when painted with imagination, they can provide
a tremendously colorful spectacle on the wargame table.
Next Time: The English from St. Albans to The Boyne.

Part IV -- The English
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-	-	Bibliography	-	-
Dungeons & Dragons	-	Dragon magazine	-	The Dragon #25

England’s insular position has, throughout history, made it slower to
adopt new trends than its brothers on the continent. Nowhere was this
more apparent than in the military sphere. Up to the reign of Queen
Anne, (1701 - 1714). the English army remained a curious mix of
medieval and modern ideas, fortunately molded into an efficient fighting
force. Here, we will attempt to examine the major trends in English
military development, and how it effected and was affected by developments
on the continent.

The first and foremost factor in England’s rise to power was the
adoption of the Welsh Longbow during the reign of Edward I in the 13th
century. Its effectiveness in the Scottish Wars, when properly coordinated
with cavalry, was devastating. Many a Scottish warrior, and later
French Knights, died with a cloth-yard shaft in his breast, a mute
testimony to the skill of the English yeoman.

Through succeeding reigns up to the early 17th century, the longbow
remained an important part of England’s armory. Muster rolls,
from Queen Elizabeth’s reign, show a fair proportion of longbows, along
with musket, pike and bill, and the royal guard always contained large
numbers of archers. It was not until improvements in infantry firearms
and armor made them vastly superior, that the English finally accepted
the fact that the day of the longbow was past. It is interesting to note, that
during the “Wars of the Roses”, when both sides used essentially the
same weapons and tactics, that battles were not decided by longbow
vollies, but in fierce and bloody melees with maul and polearm. The
memory of the longbow’s power was so strong in the military mind that
Benjamin Franklin would seriously suggest its adoption as the national
weapon of the American forces during the Revolutionary War.

English ability with other weapons was not to be passed over lightly
however, for the combination of bill, pike and musket turned back many
a determined charge. In fact, the English gained such a reputation for
discipline and courage during the 16th century that they were as eagerly
sought after by their allies, as they were avoided by their enemies.
English troops seemed to wear less armor than other European armies;
infantry often wore nothing more than a brigandine of jacked leather
with a motion or cabaset for their head. Pikemen, following continental
practice, usually wore back and breastplate, and tassets protecting their
thighs.

By the time of the Civil Wars, the English forces presented a “proper”
continental appearance, officered by men who received their
training in the Low Countries and France. By this time regiments were
normally made up of one-third pikemen and two-thirds musketeers,
other hybrid weapons had by now faded away. It was during the Civil
Wars that the familiar red coats came into widespread use, and in fact
became a national uniform with the creation of the New Model Army in
1644-45.

If any arm was truly neglected by the English, it was their cavalry.
Historically, the English have been a nation of foot soldiers, and in their
Civil Wars, cavalry played a small, though often significant role. On the
continent however, the English found the need for numbers of quality
cavalry. By Queen Elizabeth’s reign, English and Scottish lancers,
though few in number, were highly regarded by their allies, and more
often than not, decided the tide of a battle by a charge at a decisive
moment. Armor, for the cavalry of Elizabeth’s reign, ranged from chainmail
or jacked leather for the light horse, to three-quarter cuirassier
armor on the lancers.

From 1645 to 1698 the English military went through a phase of
constant change and improvement. Uniforms altered in design and cut,
armor reduced to the barest minimum and the red coat almost universally
accepted as the trademark of the British soldier. The English
troops, who fought in the Low Countries under William I from 1689 to
1697, were tough professionals, and under leaders like Monmouth and
Marlbourough, they saved many a close situation. Their courage is
dramatically shown in the fact that casualty lists almost always contained
a higher proportion of British dead than any other.

In 1698 however, disaster struck. The War of the Palatinate (The
War of the League of Augsburg), ended in 1697 with the announcement
of the Edicat of Nantes. The English people, embroiled in warfare
of one sort or another since 1640, were sick of fighting and the constant
drain on their purses. They demanded that William and Parliament
reduce the army to its barest possible level, approximately 9,000 men,
to defend the island. William pleaded with the people to reconsider their
request, pointing to the political situation on the continent, Spain in
particular, as just cause to keep the army up to strength. Fortunately, the
answer to the crisis came from the continent. In 1700 Charles XII, King
of Spain, died. The claimants to the throne included a relation of Louis
XIV, thus the new King could rule France, Spain and the Holy Roman
Empire at one time, wielding immense military and political power.
Louis XIV followed this event, by formally revoking the Edict of Nantes,
and German and Dutch troops mobilized for war.

In the midst of this sudden outbreak of war fever, with England
preparing to respond to calls from the continent, William died, leaving
the country in the hands of his capable successor, Queen Anne. She
vigorously pursued the war policy and urged the country to stand
behind her and her general, the Duke of Marlborough. The English
troops that Marlborough took overseas were well drilled parts of a finely
tuned machine, the likes of which had never before been seen on the
European continent. Marlborough’s “Red Caterpillar”, as the immense
column of troops was known, ushered in the beginning of a new era in
warfare, that left behind the pike and arquebus, and brought to the fore
bayonet and Brown Bess.

Next time: Part V The Armies of Eastern Europe

Bibliography
Churchill, W. — The Life and Time of the Duke of Marlborough in 4 volumes

Cruikshank — Elizabeth’s Army

Rowe, H.L. — The Expansion of Elizabethan England

Mattingly. G. — The Armada

Oman, C.W.C. — The Art of War in the 15th Century

Oman, C.W.C. — The Art of War in the 16th Century

Cole, H. — The Wars of the Roses

Rogers, H.C.B. — Battles and Generals of the Civil Wars

*Nascati, N.F. — Cromwell and the Rise of the New Model Army

*Nascati, N.F. — The Rise and Development of the British Army from 1689 to 1714.

    *These are both unpublished manuscripts, N.F.N.

Part V -- Armies of Eastern Europe
-

-	-	Bibliography	-	-
Dungeons & Dragons	-	Dragon magazine	-	The Dragon #25

Warfare in Eastern Europe (for our purposes, Poland, Hungary,
Russia, and the Ottoman Empire, etc.) evolved along very different lines
than the formalized linear warfare of Western Europe. This land,
covered as it was with rolling plains, steppes and grasslands, has been,
since ancient times, a land of horsemen. From the hordes of Attila the
Hun to the mailed Spahis of Suliman, wave after wave of horsemen
have swept out of the East. The major countries of Eastern Europe each
refined the mounted warrior to suit their own special tastes and
thoughts; these individual systems will be the subject of this article.

The one unifying force that decided the final design of military
systems was that of defense against the hordes of Turks and Tartars that
swept out of the Middle East. A study of these forces will be a fit starting
point. The Tartars are the simpler of the two forces, essentially being the
descendents of the Mongol hordes of Genghis Khan. Basically light
horse-archers and spearmen, the force was bolstered by a small number,
approximately 30%, of medium/heavy lancers. Their tactics as well
were similar to the five rank formation of the Mongols. Under their
greatest leader, Timur the Lame (Tamerlane), they cut a wide swath of
destruction through the Ukraine and other parts of southern Russia and
Asia. After his death however, their discipline and victories faded quickly.

The army of the Ottoman Empire however, is a very different story.
It is interesting to note that they were the disciplined core of infantry for
support. This core was the famous (or infamous?) Corps of Janissaries.
These troops were raised as children from Christian slaves, to become
one of the most efficient fighting forces of Renaissance Europe. Originally,
they were armed with a strong composite bow and a saber. It was
not long however, before firearms were generally adopted; not long
after that they became highly proficient in their use. The Janissaries
were not however, trained for maneuver. Their primary function was to
form a stable base around which the Ottoman cavalry could maneuver
and reform.

The Ottoman cavalry was the cream of their army, at least most of it
was. The regular cavalry was fairly evenly divided between the elite,
heavy Spahis of the guard, and the light Timariot, who were horsearcher/
lancers. The Spahis, in full mail and helmet, were the equal of all
but the heaviest European cavalry and formed the core of the Ottoman
offense. The Timariot wore a light shirt of mail and a light helmet and
used a strong composite bow to launch arrows a great distance. They
also carried a scimitar and light lance for melees.

From 30% to 50% of the horse consisted of irregular light cavalry,
who acted as skirmishers and scouts and were variously armed with
scimitars, bows, javelins etc. Their overall value was minimal, though
they did have their proper place in the tactical scheme. The last component
of the army, which could be included here, is the Azabs. These
were large groups of light irregular infantry, used as skirmishers who
were armed with bows, muskets, etc.

The Ottomans had a healthy regard for artillery and were always
well supplied with ordinance, usually more so than their Eastern European
opponents. They had little trust in their hired gun crews however,
who were very often chained to their guns.

The principal opponent of the Ottoman advance was the disunited
Kingdom of Hungary. Along with Moldavia, Wallachia and Transylvania
(which often fought on the side of the Ottomans), a heroic resistance
was maintained up to the middle of the 18th century. The Hungarians
are unusual, in that they were the only European nation to have a
national force of horse archers of sufficient quality to oppose the Turks.
These were, of course, the famous Hussars. Trained to act as one with
their horse, the Hussars were brave and daring, and when properly
supported, they could undertake some remarkable assignments. Armed
with a composite bow and saber, and later two pistols, the Hussars wore
no armor save for an occasional mail shirt, and they relied on their
speed and accuracy to accomplish their tasks. Supporting the Hussars,
the Hungarians fielded heavy, feudal cavalry, similar in most respects to
the armored lancers of Western Europe, except for certain national
costume details. Other cavalry units consisted of light Wallachian and
Moldavian lancers, some Tartars, and Croatian light cavalry, which
were similar to the national Hussars.

Being a nation of horsemen since the days of their Maygar ancestors,
the Hungarians had to look to mercenaries for a source of reliable
infantry. From Germany, they hired pikemen and crossbowmen. From
the Hussites of Bohemia, they hired companies of handgunners and
additional infantry. These troops seemed somehow more trustworthy
than the mercenary companies of Western Europe. Perhaps the seriousness
of the Turkish threat gave them a common bond that went beyond
monetary considerations.

The Kingdom of Poland held a position of great importance
throughout the period, though they were often more concerned with
the raids of Russians and Teutonic Knights than the Turkish threat.
Cavalry was also the core of the Polish army, though not the light horse
archer of the Hungarians. The Polish Hussar (as you can see, the
confusion on the origin of the term has deep roots) was a heavy
cavalryman modeled along the lines of the Byzantine Cataphract His
equipment consisted of a heavy breast plate, shoulder and wrist protectors,
tassets, and heavy, leather boots. Their armament was extensive,
consisting of a mace, two swords (one curved, one straight), two pistols,
a lance and often a bow. The famous Winged Hussars were an elite unit
drawn from veterans of the line formations, and were often held in
reserve to deliver the final, decisive blow. It was not uncommon to find
the Winged Hussars under the personal command of the Polish King, as
with John Sobieski at Vienna in 1685.

Other types of Polish cavalry included Cossacks recruited from
Lithuania, who fought with saber, javelin and bow, Polish light lancers,
and the Pancerni, a curious looking medium cavalryman. The Pancerni
wore a thigh length mail shirt, a mail hauberk topped by an odd looking
flat cap, and heavy boots. They were armed with saber, bow, mace, war
hammer and shield, and later added a brace of pistols to their equipment.
During the 17th century the Poles began to form companies of dragoons,
who wore a long coat like the infantry, and carried musket, saber, pistols
and an axe.

Polish infantry played a secondary but not unimportant role in
battle. Like the Janissaries, they formed a solid base around which the
cavalry could maneuver. However, they were also trained and armed
for the attack. They wore no body armor, except for the protection
provided by their heavy clothes. They were normally armed with a long,
curved sword and a musket. In addition, many carried a two-handed
axe, which was used both in melee and as a rest for the heavy muskets of
the period. Pikemen, though few in number, were included in the
infantry units, and were useful in both attack and defense.

The last of the great powers we will discuss is Russia. Beginning with
Ivan IV (The Terrible), Russia began to spread its might throughout the
East, fighting several wars with Poland and the Tartar Khanates. The
army of Ivan The Terrible was a curious mix of medieval and modern
forms. The cavalry was small in size compared to the other Eastern
powers, and was fairly evenly divided between light horse archers, and
heavy, mailed lancers. The horse archers wore a padded jacket for
protection over bright, peasant tunics, and low boots into which were
tucked colorful, baggy trousers. Their weapons consisted of a composite
bow, saber and mace; they were generally used for harassment, skirmishing
and scouting.

The heavy cavalry wore a variety of armor protection, from ring mail
to scale armor to metal plates sewn on to ring mail. They fought with a
heavy lance, sword and mace, and carried a large shield. Most wore a
simple conical helmet, often with a chainmail neckguard, nobles added
a screen of mail which protected the eyes and nose. The cavalry forces
were also augmented by hiring large numbers of Cossacks from the
steppes.

Russian infantry varied greatly in type and quality, and was often
supported by units of German mercenaries with pike and musket. The
best Russian infantry were the Streltsi of the Imperial Guard. They were
all armed with musket, saber and axe, and wore a long, orange or
yellowish-brown coat. The elite Streltsi of the Czar’s bodyguard, wore a
very unusual uniform, consisting of tight chain mail trousers tucked into
boots, a mail shirt with brass strips for added strength, and a mail
hauberk with a face screen similar to that of the noble cavalry. These
bodyguards were generally armed with a bardische (a long, Russian
battle-axe), and a saber.

Other Russian infantry included Zaporozian peasants who fought
with battle-axe and saber, and foot Cossacks, generally armed with
musket, arquebus or crossbow, who acted as skirmishers and scouts.

With the exception of the Turks, none of these countries had any real
appreciation of the power and importance of artillery, and were very
slow to adopt to Western methods. In fact, ambassadors sent to Russia
by Elizabeth I of England, commented on the military maneuvers of
large numbers of horse archers.

It was not until the reign of Peter the Great, that the Russians saw the
need to adopt Western methods. He took the polyglot, antiquated army
and turned it into a first class fighting machine. He introduced artillery,
and made sure that his gunners were well trained. By the time of the
Great Northern War in 1700, the Russian army could hold its own
against the best. Peter’s crushing defeat of Charles XII’s Swedish army
was firm proof of the fact.

Overall, the inclusion of a few Eastern units, or entire Eastern
European campaigns, would make a colorful and interesting sidelight to
your normal Renaissance wargames.

Next Time: Landsknechnts and Reiters

Address All Questions and Comments To:
    Nick Nascati
    2320 So. Bancroft St.
    Phila., Pa. 19145

Bibliography
Churchill, W. — The Life and Time of the Duke of Marlborough in 4 volumes

Oman, C.W.C., The Art of War in The Middle Ages.

Oman, C.W.C., The Art of War in The 16th Century.

Dupuy and Dupuy, The Encyclopedia of Military History.

Chandler, D., The Art of War in the Age of Marlbourough.

Gush, G., Renaissance Armies.
 

Part VI
Landsknecht and Reiters
 

-	-	-	-	-
Dungeons & Dragons	-	Dragon magazine	-	The Dragon #37

By 1475, the reputation of the Swiss Pikemen had been firmly
established among the armies of Western Europe. There were few, if
any, bodies of organized troops who could withstand their awesome
charge. After 1500, the Swiss served almost exclusively with the
French, so it was obvious that some type of counter-measure was
needed. About 1490, the first steps were taken.

Maximillian of Austria, the Holy Roman Emperor, saw how crucial
the need was to develop a competent force of infantry to oppose the
Swiss. He appointed Joachim Von Frundsburg, a competent general
and veteran of many campaigns, to accomplish the task. Von Frundsburg
took on his job with relish, and was determined to match the
Swiss. He began by hiring veteran infantry from all over the Empire and
Europe; sturdy Brabanters and Flemings, Germans of every description,
Italians, Spanish, even French, flocked to the rich and wide-open
purse Von Frundsburg offered.

Heavy cavalry came in two varieties, ritters and reiters. There is
some confusion about the two similar terms, but the following explanation
should be clear.

The ritters were typical armored lancers, similar to those found
throughout Western Europe. They were fully clothed in plate armor
and carried a heavy battle lance and a long, straight sword. Their horses
often had plate armor as well, to protect them from crossbow bolts and
bullets. These troops were the primary shock force of the Imperial
army, and one can well imagine the sort of impact such heavy armored
men would have on an opposing line.

The reiters were the infamous, black-armored pistoliers of the
Imperial army. Their dress went through two phases. They originally
wore full plate armor to the waist, with heavy boots on their legs and an
open helmet on their head. Later, as the need for more mobility arose,
two distinct types emerged. One was a very lightly armored reiter
whose only protection may have been a light chainmail shirt, and who
wore a soft, pilgrim-type hat and heavy boots. The other wore a
long-sleeved mail shirt under a black breastplate, with an open, lobstertype
helmet. The one constant factor in both phases was armament.
The reiters carried three wheelock or matchlock pistols, two in saddle
holsters and one generally stuck in a boot. For close-in fighting they
carried a long, heavy sword known as an estoc. Their horses were often
all black as well, and were unarmored so as to give them maximum
speed for maneuvering.

The tactic most often associated with the ritters was the picturesque
and complicated caracole. This formation consisted of a column at least
six deep of reiters, performing a tightly drilled move-and-fire piece
which was devastating to opposing infantry. Each line in turn trotted up
into pistol range; each man discharged two of his pistols and then
wheeled around to the back of the formation to reload. This tactic was
especially useful against opposing pike formations. The concentrated
fire would knock holes in the dense formation, and the reiters would
charge in to exploit the gap.

Von Frundsburg had done his work well. He reviewed with justifiable
pride the fine troops he had trained. They were better than
anything else the Empire could field. The question was, however, could
they beat the Swiss? In the initial contests the Landsknecht were
devastated; the Swiss fought with tremendous ferocity against these
Germans who copied their tactics.

As they gained more experience, however, the Landsknecht defeats
came less and less frequently. The Swiss at the same time were slipping
more and more in discipline, and found that they were often hard
pressed to hold back the confident Landsknecht.

To the Landsknecht, war was either good or bad. A good war was
one in which they were able to take many prisoners for ransom and
fatten their purses. A bad war was one in which they faced the Swiss, for
they knew that quarter would be neither given nor expected.

The major difference between the Landsknecht and the Swiss
remained one of ethics rather than tactics. The Landsknecht, for all
their training and discipline, were mercenaries. Their loyalty would
depend on the generosity of their employer, and on the way the war
was going. It was not unlikely that a whole company would defect or at
least refuse to fight, if they felt it was not in their best interests to do so.
The Swiss, even when they fought for the French, served with fierce
loyalty.

The costume of the Landsknecht was generally more garish than
that of the Swiss. The mercenaries favored colorful, full blouses covered
with sashes and ribbons, and huge, floppy hats gorgeously decorated
with ostrich plumes. Later, toward the end of the 16th and into the
17th century, the costumes were toned down. Descriptions of Landsknecht
from the 1620’s usually find them wearing leather jerkins over
their clothes.

All in all, the Landsknecht certainly represents one of the most
interesting and colorful armies of the Renaissance, and when painted
with patience and care will present a satisfying and impressive spectacle
on the wargame table.